Science and Environment News - Climate Change, ISRO, NASA Photos and Videos

Mysterious figure appears in sky during extreme solar storms

Aditya Madanapalle — Tue, 03 Feb 2026 12:41:00 +0530

The American astronomer Thomas Gold proposed that over the past 12,000 years, there were extreme solar storms one or two orders of magnitude greater than the Carrington Event of 1859, which was the most intense solar storm in living memory. The plasma physicist Anthony Peratt at the Los Alamos National Laboratory in USA explored computer simulations of auroral evolution under intense solar wind, using the Roadrunner supercomputer. This involved multiple currents merging into quadrupoles, creating structures such as helices, concentric circles and filamentary rays. Snapshots of these simulations closely resemble rock art found around the world. A page from Astronomical Petroglyphs – Searching for Rock Art Evidence for an Ancient Super Aurora is embedded below. Similar experiments conducted at the Kurchatov Institute in Moscow generated intense plasma columns, producing shapes that matched petroglyphs through evolution of pinched toroids. Rock art and paintings depicting these aurora-like stickmen are found in 139 countries around the world, typically carved on surfaces with a field-of-view towards the Earth's rotational South Pole or geographic South Pole. Similar petroglyphs are found USA, Italy, Korea, Mexico, UAE, Austria, Spain, China and Armenia. During the Carrington Event, the aurorae were not restricted to the poles, but were visible all the way to the equator.

Miyake Events

The appiritions require solar storms far exceeding the 1859 Carrington Event. The modeled storms involve solar plasma currents 10 to 100 times stronger, generating synchrotron radiation and thermonuclear temperatures in the trapped plasma, occurring approximately every 4,000 years. While there are some patchy records of such extreme solar storms (apart perhaps from the petroglyphs), ice cores and tree rings both contain evidence of about six extremely power solar storms that occurred over the last 14,500 years. The last such extreme event occurred in 993 CE, with another witnessed 2,700 years ago during the height of the Assyrian empire. These extreme solar storms are known as Miyake Events. Note that this is just a theory that remains to be confirmed.

Quantum Interference of 7000 atom sodium nanoparticles

Aditya Madanapalle — Mon, 02 Feb 2026 18:28:00 +0530

In an advancement for quantum interferometry, researchers from the University of Vienna have demonstrated matter-wave interference with sodium nanoparticles exceeding 7,000 atoms, delocalised over 133 nanometres, more than ten times their diameter. This is a superposition similar to the Schrodinger's Cat thought experiment, and achieves an unprecedented macroscopicity, outstripping previous records by an order of magnitude, and rigourously testing macrorealist modifications to quantum mechanics.The experiment used a Talbot-Lau setup with three 266 nanometre ultraviolet standing-wave gratings spaced at 0.983 m. The team sourced cryogenic sodium clusters at velocities around 160 m/s yielding de Broglie wavelengths down to 10 femtometres. The first and third gratings act as photodepletion masks, ionising clusters in the antinodes, while the second grating imparts a phase shift via induced dipoles. Bayesian analysis of raw data falsifies minimal macrorealist models, affirming unmodified Schrodinger dynamics. This extends quantum delocalisation to metallic nanoparticles, a novel class bridging molecular and mesoscopic regimes.

It is possible to study a Schrodinger's Virus

Unlike cryogenic resonators or levitated optics, the free-flight coherence probes gravitational and stochastic collapse theories with unprecedented sensitivity. For heavier clusters, visibilities reached 66 per cent. Though near classical limits, velocity reduction to 25 m/s should push the quantum distinction further. The platform for the experiment is versatile enough to accommodate metals, dielectrics and potentially biological nanomaterials such as viroids or proteins. The experiment paves the way for potential tests of equivalence principles and force sensing in delocalised states. As de Broglie wavelengths shrink, this experiment charts a path to macroscale superpositions, probing the quantum-classical boundary with atomic precision. A paper describing the research has been published in Nature.

India plans to set up National Large Solar Telescope in Ladakh

Aditya Madanapalle — Sun, 01 Feb 2026 15:42:00 +0530

India is building the National Large Solar Telescope (NLST), a two-metre class telescope for detailed studies of the Sun. It will observe in visible and near-infrared wavelengths. The telescope uses a Gregorian design on an alt-azimuth mount, so that it can track the Sun as it moves across the sky. The adaptive optics on board allows for sharp images, with a spatial resolution of 0.1 to 0.3 arcseconds. The telescope will be powerful enough for scientists to see very small features on the Sun, such as magnetic structures, plasma movements and changes in the solar atmosphere. Instruments on the telescope will also be able to track magnetic fields, and capture spectra from multiple solar times. At night, the same telescope can also be used to observe stars. The telescope will be located near the Merak village close to the Pangong Lake in Ladakh, at an altitude of about 4,200 metres above the sea level. The location is a high-altitude desert with clear skies, low water vapour and stable winds, that provide ideal conditions for observing the Sun over extended periods. These features also make it suitable for high-quality coronagraphy, that involves observing the outer atmosphere of the Sun by occulting the disk. The location also fills a gap in global solar monitoring observatories between Japan and Europe, helping provide continuous coverage of the Sun from the ground.

Project led by Indian Institute of Astrophysics

The NLST project is being led by the Indian Institute of Astrophysics in Bengaluru, with support from other institutions across the country. In the Union Budget 2026, the government announced funding for the upgradation and advancement of the NLST infrastructure to support high-resolution studies of the solar atmosphere and space weather research. This funding is part of a broader plan to strengthen astrophysics in India. The telescope will complement the observations of Aditya L1 mission as well as the MAST instrument in Udaipur. The main goals of the instrument include understanding how solar magnetic fields form and change, as well as drivers of solar activity such as flares and coronal mass ejections.

CERN’s LHC recreates Big Bang conditions, confirms universe began as near-perfect liquid

Pragya Singha Roy — Fri, 30 Jan 2026 14:16:00 +0530

New Delhi: Scientists at CERN’s Large Hadron Collider have uncovered fresh evidence that the early universe behaved like a near-perfect liquid. New experiments show energetic quarks creating wake-like ripples as they travel through quark-gluon plasma, the ultra-hot matter believed to have filled the universe moments after the Big Bang.The findings offer the clearest proof yet that this primordial ‘soup’ flowed collectively, with almost no friction. Instead of particles scattering randomly, the plasma responds as a single fluid, splashing and swirling around fast-moving quarks, much like water reacting to a speeding duck.

Recreating the first moments of the cosmos

The universe in its first microseconds was an amalgam of gluons and quarks in a trillion-degree mixture. When space cooled, these particles merged to create protons and neutrons, forming the base of all matter today.Physicists collide heavy ions at nearly light speed in the LHC to study this extreme state. These collisions transiently recreate minute portions of the quark-gluon plasma, enabling researchers to study the manner in which matter acted during the beginning of time.

Quark wakes reveal liquid-like motion

A CMS Collaboration, led by physicists at MIT, used the study of billions of collisions to identify approximately 2,000 rare events in which one energetic quark was created together with a neutral Z boson.Since Z bosons have small interactions with the plasma, they are clean markers. All the disturbances manifested on the other side are directly traced to the quark. In both studies, researchers found bow-shaped ripples in the wake of the quark's unmistakable wake pattern in the plasma.These observations indicate that the plasma is sufficiently thick to reduce the speed of quarks and act as a whole, which proves that it is not a loose cloud of particles but that it is a fluid.

A nearly frictionless ‘Primordial Soup’

Earlier experiments had hinted at liquid-like behaviour through collective particle flows. But the newly observed wakes provide the first direct evidence of this effect from individual quarks.The results also match long-standing theoretical predictions that fast particles should generate waves inside quark-gluon plasma. Researchers say this confirms the plasma is a near-perfect fluid, with extremely low viscosity.“This tells us the quark drags the plasma with it as it moves,” said MIT physicist Yen-Jie Lee, one of the study’s leaders. “The medium splashes and swirls like a liquid.”By measuring the size and shape of these wakes, scientists can now estimate key properties of quark-gluon plasma, including how easily it flows and how quickly it settles after being disturbed.The team plans to apply the same method to larger datasets, hoping to build a clearer picture of how this exotic matter evolved as the universe cooled.The study, carried out using CERN’s Compact Muon Solenoid detector, appears in Physics Letters B. Researchers say it marks a major step toward understanding the universe’s earliest moments, captured through ripples left behind by speeding quarks in a primordial cosmic fluid.

Xenotransplantation: Can animal organs be transplanted to humans?

Aditya Madanapalle — Thu, 29 Jan 2026 16:25:00 +0530

Xenotransplantation is the process of transplanting organs, tissues or cells from one species to another. Most of the ongoing research is focused on transplanting pig organs to humans. Pigs are suitable donors because their organs are similar in size to human organs, and they reproduce quickly, allowing large numbers to be raised. The primary barrier is the human immune system, which recognises the pig tissues as foreign, and attacks them. This results in hyperacute rejection within minutes to hours, triggered by antibodies against pig carbohydrates. Without modifications, xenografts rapidly fail. To overcome rejections, scientists are using gene editing tools such as CRISPR to alter pig DNA. The crucial changes including knocking out certain genes, especially ones associated with producing carbohydrates, to reduce binding by human antibodies. Human genes are added to express proteins, to control coagulation and inflammation. Pigs with 10 or more edits, sometimes up to 69, have been created by companies such as eGenesis and United Therapeutics. These modifications greatly reduce hyperacute rejection, and extend graft survival in preclinical tests on non-human primates, and some early human cases.

Current progress and challenges

In 2025, the US FDA approved initial clinical trials for pig kidney xenotransplantations following compassionate use cases where gene-edited pig kidneys functioned in living patients for months, with one case reaching 271 days before removal due to declining function. A pig liver xenotransplant supported a patient for 171 days. These results demonstrate that xenografts can perform key functions such as filtration or metabolism. However, there are challenges, including delayed rejection, infections from pig viruses (that can be prevented by gene edits), and the need for strong immunosuppression, that can make the host vulnerable to diseases. The ongoing trials are aimed at improving long-term outcomes and address the organ shortage affecting over 10 million people worldwide.

What are active galaxies?

Aditya Madanapalle — Tue, 27 Jan 2026 19:41:00 +0530

Active galaxies are galaxies with centres that emit more energy than can be explained by their stars alone. This excess radiation comes from an active galactic nucleus (AGN), a compact region in the core of the galaxy powered by a supermassive black hole containing between millions and billions of times the mass of the Sun. This supermassive black hole consumes gas and dust from the surrounding galaxy, forming a superheated accretion disk of tortured material. Friction and compression in the disk heat the material to millions of degrees, causing them to emit radiate across the electromagnetic spectrum, from radio waves to gamma rays. The luminosity of an AGN can outshine the host galaxy by many times, with the brightest examples, known as quasars reaching outputs equivalent of trillions of Suns, from a region no larger than the solar system. The appearance of active galaxies varies depends on the accretion rate, the presence of relativistic jets and the viewing angle. In many cases, strong magnetic fields channel some of the infalling material into narrow jets of relativistic particles perpendicular to the accretion disk. These jets can extend for hundreds of thousands of lightyears from the host galaxy. These jets also produce intense radio emission through synchrotron radiation. Differences in orientation are responsible for distinct subclasses, blazars have jets pointed straight at the Earth, Seyfert galaxies are typically closer, with broad emission lines, with the central region outshining the rest of the galaxy. There also radio galaxies that display extended lobes, caused by the jets interacting with the intergalactic medium.

Unified Model and Evolution

The Unified Model proposes that most AGN types share the same core structure, a supermassive black hole, an accretion disk, an obscuring torus of gas and dust, and jets that may or may not be present. The observed differences are merely because of the orientation. Active galaxies were more common in the early universe, peaking between 10 and 11 billion years ago when galaxy interactions supplied an abundance of gas. Today, only between five and ten per cent of galaxies show significant activity as gas supplies have diminished. Quasars, that were common in the early universe are rare in the local universe, although, Seyfert galaxies demonstrate lower-level activity. The central black holes cooevolve with their host galaxies, with feedback from the AGNs influencing the rate of star formation.

What is the Overview Effect?

Aditya Madanapalle — Sun, 25 Jan 2026 18:59:00 +0530

American author and space philosopher Frank White coined the term 'overview effect' in his 1987 book, The Overview Effect: Space Exploration and Human Evolution. White developed the concept after interviewing a number of astronauts, and drawing from his own experiences of a similar effect while flying over the Earth in an aeroplane during the 1970s and 1980s. The overview effect describes a profound cognitive shift reported by many astronauts when viewing Earth from space. At altitudes of about 400 km or Low Earth Orbit or farther out, the world appears as a fragile sphere suspended in the blackness of space. This visual perspective triggers an immediate awareness of the unity and interconnectedness of the planet. In the Houston We Have a Podcast podcast, White describes how he came up with the term, " So what happened was, the first thing that happened with that I had the experience that led to coining the overview effect as a term. And that was an experience flying across country and looking out the window. And having what I think was a mild experience of the overview effect, where I was imagining living in one of those O’Neill cylinders between the Earth and the moon. And I thought, if I lived in a place like that, I would always have an overview of the Earth. I would see it from a distance. And I would see it’s a unified whole. There are no borders or boundaries. All of these things would become knowledge. Which, living on the surface, we find it very hard to philosophically grasp, or mentally grasp. And the term overview effect came to me. And that’s when I started talking to astronauts. Because there were no people living in space permanently. There wasn’t even an international space station at the time. And it was just beginning to be conceived. And so, I began work on that. And in 1987, published my book on the topic, The Overview Effect."

The Earth is a living, breathing world

There are no geographical boundaries, and the same wispy atmosphere envelopes the entire world. Astronauts frequently describe the planet as beautiful yet delicate, a small oasis in an endless void. Common psychological elements include a heightened sense of awe, humility and reverence for life. Many report an abrupt realisation that humanity shares one fragile home, prompting a dissolution of divisions based on nationality, ethnicity or ideology. The effect often leads to long-term changes in worldview. Astronauts describe returning with stronger environmental concern, reduced materialism, and a commitment to planetary stewardship. Analogous experiences have also been reported from virtual simulations. In a recent fireside chat at IIT Delhi, NASA Astronaut Sunita Williams described the overview effect, covering all the points described above.

IIIT-H scientists develop UPS monitoring device

Aditya Madanapalle — Thu, 22 Jan 2026 15:42:00 +0530

Researchers from IIIT-Hyderabad have developed a low-cost UPS monitoring device, as a response to frustration by a campus IT staffer, Prakash Nayak, who was struggling with frequent equipment failures without clear explanations. One of the scientists who developed the device, Sachin Chaudhari says, “It is important to note that IT staff Mr Prakash is part of the research paper we have published. He is also part of the patent we have recently filed on this. This highlights the value of treating campus operations teams as co-creators of research problems rather than mere end users – a mindset that leads to more relevant and impactful outcomes.” A paper describing the device, titled ‘Low-cost IoT-based Downtime Detection for UPS and Behaviour Analysis’ won the Best Paper award at 18th International Conference on COMmunication System and NETworkS (COMSNETS-2026) Workshop on AI of Things in Bengaluru. The researchers developed a non-intrusive current-monitoring system that clamps onto the input and output lines of the UPS instead of tapping into the internals. The system is capable of tracking the flow of current before, during and after power outages. The devices are also powered by batteries, and can continue to operate even when the electricity is cut and without internet connectivity.

A practical, low-cost solution

Conventional devices for UPS monitoring are expensive, and can cost about Rs 20,000. These are also specific to manufacturers, and tap into the internals, depend on connectivity, and cannot record data when the UPS loses power. The device is developed using off-the-shelf components, and costs less than Rs 2,000. It also works with any and all UPS devices. The new monitoring system identified a UPS that was supporting loads briefly, but was failing to recharge the batteries, something that the IT team had suspected but could not prove. The device offers a counterexample to criticism that academic research is often disconnected from reality.

Dhruva, Pixxel, SatSure, PierSight to deploy national Earth Observation satellite constellation

Aditya Madanapalle — Wed, 21 Jan 2026 14:57:00 +0530

Four Indian new space startups have signed an agreement to develop and deploy the first Earth Observation Constellation of India under a private-public partnership model. Pixxel and SatSure are based in Bengaluru, Dhruva Space is based in Hyderabad and PierSight is based in Ahmedabad. 12 satellites will be deployed over the next five years with an investment of over Rs 1,200 crore. The companies won a proposal by IN-SPACe to design, build and operate the constellation in August 2025, with the companies now entering into a formal agreement. The consortium's winning bid was for zero rupees. The companies will design, build and operate the constellation. The satellites will be equipped with multispectral, hyperspectral, panchromatic and microwave synthetic aperture radar (SAR) payloads. Pixxel completed its Firefly constellation of six hyperspectral satellites last year, PierSight has demonstrated its SAR payload on the upper stage of a PSLV rocket, Dhruva Space has flow satellites on multiple ISRO missions, and provides full-stack services, including satellite buses, deployers and ground stations, while SatSure provides satellite intelligence services and plans to launch its own constellation. PierSight will also be building satellites for maritime surveillance in parallel.

A pivotal point for India's space sector

The proposal was introduced by The Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre (IN-SPACe), the single window clearing agency for all space activities from India. IN-SPACe functions under the Department of Space of the Government of India. The constellation will provide analysis-ready data (ARD) as well as value added services (VAS) for applications in climate change monitoring, disaster management, agriculture, infrastructure, maritime surveillance, national security, and urban planning. The constellation will also cater to the global demand for geospatial intelligence. The constellation will strengthen data sovereignty, while delivering planetary intelligence at a national scale.

What will happen when humans discover aliens?

Aditya Madanapalle — Tue, 20 Jan 2026 13:19:00 +0530

Scientists have only been able to speculate on the outcomes of discovering extra-terrestrial life, drawing from astrobiology, psychology and sociology studies. Detection methods include analysing the atmospheres of exoplanets for biosignatures such as oxygen, methane or carbon dioxide through astronomical instruments such as the James Webb Space Telescope, which can indicate habitability with up to 95 per cent possibility. Local searches are targeting subsurface oceans on ice moons such as Enceladus and Europa, as well as potential underground Martian lakes, where microbial life might persist. Evidence could also come in the form of meteorites bearing organic molecules, or radio signals from intelligent civilisations. The least likely route of discovery is via say a physical spaceship captured by any military, which is a nonsensical or at least pseudoscientific scenario unsupported by any evidence. Any potential impact on the market because of the introduction of alien technology is purely speculative. Empirical research indicates that human reactions would likely be positive, based on linguistic analysis in responses to a hypothetical announcement, particularly for microbial discoveries. Short-term effects might include equanimity or delight. Negative reactions such as fear or pandemonium are possible, but less probable for non-threatening finds.

Long-term consequences of discovering aliens

In the long-term, the discovery of alien life could reshape society and science. Confirmation of life elsewhere could challenge humanity's belief in its uniqueness, prompting revisions in philosophy, religion and worldviews. Depending on cultural and psychological factors, it might foster global unity or heighten perceptions of threats. There are some tough ethical questions to consider here, such as moral obligations to protect alien microbes, or implications for interstellar exploration. If life exists on Mars, even microbial life, then some would argue that Mars belongs to the microbial Martians, and humans have no business colonising the Red Planet. Studies emphasise distinguishing between credible and sensational reporting and pseudoscience.

What if aliens discover us?

Searches for agnostic biosignatures, or markers of chemical complexity or chemical disequilibrium not tied to the carbon-based biochemistry of Earth expand the detection capabilities. If intelligent life is found, two-way detection becomes relevant. Earth's radio signals could be observable from up to 3,000 lightyears away by advanced civilisations. Overall, the literature suggests that discovery would affirm the predictions of astrobiology, driving technological and cultural shifts, while affirming the ubiquity of life in the universe.

The USS Nimitz 'Tic Tac' encounter of 2004

Aditya Madanapalle — Mon, 19 Jan 2026 18:22:00 +0530

The Tic Tac videos captured in 2004 by the US Navy remains one of the most credible and scrutinised cases of unidentified anomalous phenomena (UAP). On 14 November, 2004, the USS Nimitz Carrier Strike Group operating about 160 kilometres shouthwest of San Diego in the Pacific Ocean detected unusual radar contacts over several days. The Radar operators on the USS Princeton tracked multiple objects descending from altitudes of about 24,000 metres to near sea level in fractions of a second, implying extreme velocities and accelerations inconsistent with conventional aircraft. One object, later dubbed the 'Tic Tac' by pilots due to its smooth, white, oblong shape roughly 14 metres in length, was investigated by pilots in F/A-18F Super Hornets. The video was captured by the forward-looking infrared (FLIR) camera on board the aircraft. The pilots visually observed the object hovering above churning water with no visible wings, rotors or propulsion. It mirrored the movements of the jets before accelerating away at speeds defying known aerodynamics. The declassified video, about a minute long, shows a featureless oblong form exhibiting rapid lateral movements, sudden acceleration, and no heat signature from the engines, which should glow in infrared frequencies.

Scientific Analysis of the Tic Tac

Examination of the footage by groups such as the Scientific Coalition for UAP Studies estimates accelerations of 40 g to hundreds of g, with instantaneous changes in direction. Power requirements for a roughly one tonne object to perform such manoeuvres could real between one and nine gigawatts. The object reportedly jammed radar and demonstrated transmedium capability, moving seamlessly from air to water without disruption.The Pentagon officially released the FLIR video along with recordings of later incidents in April 2020, confirming its authenticity as Navy footage. No prosaic explanation such as balloons, birds, drones or sensor artefacts fully accounts for the multi-sensor data that included radar, infrared, visual and pilot testimonies. As of 2026, the case continues to fuel UAP discussions in congressional hearings and reports. No evidence links it to foreign adversaries or secret US technology, and official statements describe it as unexplained. The incident prompted renewed government interest in UAPs, including the establishment of reporting mechanisms. This mystery remains unsolved.

Roman Telescope to observe thousands of cosmic voids

Aditya Madanapalle — Sun, 18 Jan 2026 17:55:00 +0530

Scientists estimate that there are as many as two trillion galaxies in the observable universe. These galaxies are not scattered randomly, but are distributed across the surfaces of giant cosmic bubbles, that are several hundred million lightyears across. These bubbles are voids, and there are few galaxies found within these voids. The Milky Way may be in one of these voids. NASA's planned Nancy Grace Roman Telescope will be able to measure and map these cosmic voids in unprecedented detail, allowing scientists to get a better handle on the history of the expansion of the universe. Roman is sensitive enough to observe faint and distant galaxies, that promises to revolutionise the study of cosmic voids. The universe is made up of regular or baryonic matter, dark matter and dark energy. The gravitational influence of baryonic and dark matter slows down the expansion of the universe, while dark energy accelerates it. The nature of both dark matter and dark energy is not understood, and better understanding the distribution of galaxies and voids across the universe can help scientists shed light on dark matter and dark energy. The research into these voids will allow scientists to put constraints on the nature of dark energy. Scientists have investigated a potential survey where Roman will look away from the plane of the galaxy. The observations have the potential of revealing thousands of cosmic voids, some as small as 20 million lightyears across.

Mapping voids in three dimensions

Astronomers will use two types of data from Roman to map the voids in 3D. The positions of the galaxies in the sky, and their cosmological redshift determined using spectroscopic data. The redshift is the degree to which light from the galaxy as shifted towards the redder wavelengths because of the expansion of the universe. Based on theoretical models, most of the voids are expected to be roughly spherical in shape. NASA completed construction and full assembly of the Roman space telescope in November 2025, and is now conducting the final tests before the instrument is shopped to the launch site. NASA plans to launch Roman no sooner than May 2027 on board a Falcon Heavy Rocket, but the launch can take place as early as September 2026, as the project is ahead of schedule and under budget.

Astronomers spot bow shocks from jets of baby star

Aditya Madanapalle — Sun, 18 Jan 2026 17:36:00 +0530

An international team of astronomers have captured the most detailed images of a jet launched by a young star, revealing a series of delicate ring-like structures that record decades of violent outbursts during the earliest stages of the star's life. The bow shocks confirm theoretical models three decades old, but has not been directly observed before. The astronomers focused on a binary system designated as SVS 13 at a distance of about 1,000 lightyears from the Earth. The high-resolution images reveal hundreds of nested molecular rings, each traced to an energetic burst during the infancy of the star. The bow shocks allowed the astronomers to reconstruct the chronological record of the earliest stages of the star's life. Embryonic stars feed on infalling dust and gas, that flattens into an accretion disk because of slight initial movement. The magnetic fields of the disk causes some of the material falling in to be pushed away at tremendous velocities by polar jets. The bow shocks can be reliably dated, allowing the astronomers to reconstruct a timeline of the past of the star. The observations also improve the scientific understanding of how young stars grow, and how planetary systems are assembled from the material leftover from the birth of a star.

The earliest stages of the life of a star

The researchers were able to identify over 400 rings from SVS13, that reveal how its shape and speed changed over time as it punched through the surrounding environment. The researchers were able to reconstruct a 3D structure of the jet in unprecedented detail. The youngest ring matches a bright outburst observed from the star in the early 1990s. Stars are born from dense clouds of gas and dust. In the early stages, they undergo energetic outbursts that heat up and disturb the surrounding material. The tightly collimated jets of gas play a crucial role in regulating the infalling material, and how rapidly the star can accrete matter. The observations were made by the Atacama Large Millimetre Array (ALMA), located in the deserts of Northern Chile. A paper describing the findings has been published in Nature Astronomy.

China’s ‘Sky Eye’ reveals fast radio bursts come from binary star systems

Pragya Singha Roy — Sat, 17 Jan 2026 15:29:00 +0530

New Delhi: Astronomers have uncovered compelling new evidence that some fast radio bursts (FRBs) originate from binary star systems, overturning the long-held assumption that these powerful cosmic signals come from isolated stars. The discovery was made by an international research team that includes scientists from The University of Hong Kong, using China’s giant radio telescope known as the “Sky Eye”.By analysing nearly 20 months of data from a repeating FRB located about 2.5 billion light-years away, the researchers identified a clear signature of a companion star orbiting the source. The findings, published in Science, provide the strongest evidence so far that at least some repeating FRBs are produced in binary stellar systems rather than by lone neutron stars.

FAST telescope spots an unusual signal

The breakthrough came from observations made with the Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical Telescope (FAST) in Guizhou. The team detected a rare phenomenon known as an “RM flare”, marked by a sudden and extreme change in the polarisation of the radio signal.Such changes occur when radio waves pass through dense, magnetised plasma. In this case, the researchers believe the plasma was ejected by a nearby companion star, briefly altering the environment around the FRB source as it crossed the line of sight.

Clues point to a magnetar in a binary system

According to Professor Bing Zhang of HKU, the evidence strongly supports a system containing a magnetar, a neutron star with an ultra-strong magnetic field paired with a star similar to the Sun. A coronal mass ejection from the companion star likely caused the RM flare observed by FAST.The rapid rise and fall of the rotation measure over just two weeks matches what astronomers see from stellar eruptions in our own galaxy, making the binary explanation the most natural fit.

Long-term monitoring reveals hidden behaviour

Most fast radio bursts are seen only once, but a small number repeat. These repeating FRBs allow scientists to monitor them over long periods and catch rare events. FRB 220529A, the source behind this discovery, was quietly observed for months before the dramatic signal change appeared.The study also aligns with a broader theory that all FRBs may originate from magnetars, with binary companions helping shape when and how often the bursts repeat. Researchers say continued monitoring with FAST and other telescopes could reveal how common such binary systems are and bring scientists closer to solving one of astronomy’s biggest mysteries.

PSLV-C62 failure exposes major insurance gap for India’s private space startups

Pragya Singha Roy — Fri, 16 Jan 2026 17:22:00 +0530

New Delhi: The collapse of the PSLV-C62-EOS-N1 mission of ISRO has revealed a major weakness of the Indian system of private space; none of the Indian private satellites on board had insurance. It was launched at 10:18 am on January 12 off the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota and failed just after liftoff, causing the loss of several commercial payloads.With increased involvement of the private sector in the space sector of India, the incident has brought back discussion on lack of satellite insurance schemes. Industry commentators indicate that the problem is indicative of more fundamental policy and market voids, particularly with the increased frequency of commercial launches under the liberalised space regime in the country.

No Indian privateload insurance

Indian private insurers, according to the industry officials, are not now providing affordable and structured insurance cover on satellites launched in the country. This was the reason why the Indian private satellites in the failed mission were not insured.One of the officials of the Indian Space Research Organisation mentioned that satellite insurance was never a serious topic during the times when the launches were reduced to government missions. In the past, satellites were constructed and launched as objects of state usage and thus ensuring did not appear to be a necessity. The same legacy mode, authorities acknowledge, has persisted despite the entry of privates into the industry.The PSLV-C62 accident was the first failure of the PSLV mission with commercial satellites on board, which increased startups and investor anxiety.

NSIL distances itself from insurance responsibility

New Space India ltd, being the commercial arm of the ISRO, officials explained that insurance is not their concern. According to them, satellite operators will have to do their own insurance as is customary with foreign partners of ISRO.The role of NSIL, according to the officials, is to give the platform of launch and take care of the agreements. The owners of the satellites are still required to protect the assets and the insurance act is one of these mechanisms.Interestingly, ISRO has a routine of ensuring its satellites to be launched in foreign soil and there has been no policy on the same with launches in India.

Space policy review brings insurance into focus

This has become a pressing concern with the new policy of space there being finalised by India. The officials of the Ministry of Space stated that there are talks regarding the mandatory insurance of satellites.Officials believe that the insurance norms are necessary in order to provide the sector with long-term stability. The absence of safeguards may only mean that one failure costs start-ups with low capital bases.The situation is termed as a classic chicken-and-egg problem by the private space companies. The premiums of insurance might be up to half the value of a satellite, and thus cover is unaffordable to smaller companies. Most people trusted in the history of the ISRO rather.In the losses there was one payload to be made. Spanish space company Orbital Paradigm announced that its re-entry capsule, Kestrel Initial Demonstrator (KID), was able to detach itself from the launcher and send back data to Earth.The capsule of 25 kg is a prototype of a future system that will carry back payloads in orbit. Its existence was the only win in a very dismal venture towards the expansion of the Indian privatized space industry.

World’s first jaw pain app JawSpace launches as digital medical device

Pragya Singha Roy — Thu, 15 Jan 2026 16:41:00 +0530

New Delhi: A new health app called JawSpace has been launched as the world’s first digital medical device designed specifically to help people manage jaw pain caused by temporomandibular disorders (TMD). The condition affects around one in 15 people globally and is known to cause symptoms such as jaw clicking, facial pain, headaches, and difficulty opening the mouth. Yet, many patients struggle with unclear guidance and broken care pathways.JawSpace was developed with the help of professionals at Newcastle University to transform the lifestyle of people with TMD. The application integrates scientific studies with daily self-care applications, enabling users to learn more about their symptoms and be able to deal with them in their homes. Patients can receive structured, evidence-based support in their pocket and not just through clinic visits only.

A research-backed approach to self-management

According to Professor Justin Durham, Professor of Orofacial Pain at Newcastle University and Chief Clinical and Scientific Officer at JawSpace2, self-management is the most important in the treatment of TMD. The results of his studies indicate improved results in terms of quicker and better improvement in patients who are proactive in their disease management.JawSpace transforms that research into practice. The application takes the user through a symptom check and creates a self-management plan. It aims at making individuals know what is causing their pain and what to do to lessen their pain.

Tools designed for real-life use

The application will consist of jaw exercises, relaxation, heat and cold, self-massage instructions, and habit monitoring. The users are also able to record symptoms and be reminded to adhere to healthy jaw behaviours.The progress tracking and check-ins every day assist users in identifying trends in their pain. This eventually enables them to prevent triggers and minor adjustments that guard their jaw.

Built for patients and clinicians

JawSpace has a home and clinical application. It can be used to complement the treatment plans of doctors and physiotherapists as well as help patients to keep up with their treatment between appointments.Hugo Dias, a specialist TMD physiotherapist, indicates that the app has now become a normal thing in his practice. He indicates that patients find it convenient to use in addition to assisting them to adhere to the recommendations they are given in the course of consultation.In comparison to such conditions as arthritis and depression, TMD can limit the quality of life by up to 30 per cent. Nevertheless, research indicates that 75 to 90 per cent of the patient population responds to timely and regular self-management.JawSpace seeks to bridge the medical consultation and real life. It empowers individuals with the means through which they can control their condition before deterioration.

You can now book rooms on first Moon Hotel

Aditya Madanapalle — Wed, 14 Jan 2026 19:19:00 +0530

US-based new space startup Galactic Resource Utilisation (GRU) Space has revealed ambitious plans to build the first hotel on the Moon, with the initial deployment targeted for 2032. The company focuses on in-situ resource utilisation (ISRU) to enable sustainable off-world habitation. Inhabitants on the Moon cannot rely on materials from Earth entirely, and will have to use the locally available resources. GRU Space has identified a gap in conventional space efforts, that have advanced launch capabilities, but lack the infrastructure for long-term presence on the Moon or Mars. GRU Space argues that true expansion requires closed-loop systems using local resources, rejecting reliance on government-led incremental development. The idea here is to leverage lunar tourism as an economic driver to fund and validate technologies needed for broader infrastructure. The initial v1 hotel, fully manufactured on Earth, will be an inflatable structure delivered by heavy landers such as the SpaceX Starship or the Blue Origin Blue Moon spaceships. It will accommodate four guests for multi-day stays, equipped with environmental control and life support systems for scrubbing carbon dioxide, generating oxygen, reclaiming water and managing heat. The structure uses multi-layered fabrics to retain protection and protect against micrometeoroids, as well as thermal and UV shielding. GRU projects a 10-year operational lifetime with placement in a scenic location offering Earth views and extravehicular activities.

Lunar Hotel v2

The second version and beyond will incorporate ISRU, using locally sourced lunar regolith to form geopolymer-based building materials. The production of geopolymers requires far less energy than sintering or melting. A small amount of activator is shipped from the Earth with potential for full local sourcing later. This allows for larger capacity hotels, up to 10 guests, and extended lifetimes, up to 20 years, by adding regolith-derived shielding for thermal stability and radiation shielding. Structures may be partially placed in lunar pits or lava tubes for protection against cosmic rays and temperature swings. GRU Space is positioning the hotel as dual-use infrastructure, aligned with the goals of USA in space. After the Moon, GRU Space plans to build a hotel on Mars.

Cargo Capsule Demonstrator survives anomalous ISRO rocket flight

Aditya Madanapalle — Tue, 13 Jan 2026 13:45:00 +0530

The Kestrel Initial Demonstrator (KID) cargo capsule has survived the off-nominal PSLV-C62 flight. In a post on LinkedIn, Orbital Paradigm said, "Following nominal takeoff at 04:48 UTC, an anomaly occurred during the third stage boost of PSLV-C62. During third stage burn, the launch vehicle lost thrust and deviated from the nominal trajectory. Still, despite events, we confirmed today that KID survived and transmitted valuable data. Our team is analyzing and investigating the trajectory information. We'll provide a detailed update in the coming days. We received a lot of support from the space community: thank you all so much. More to come."The Kestrel Initial Demonstrator was meant to test a scaled-down version of a cargo capsule designed to complete the space transportation chain. The International Space Station and China's Tiangong Space Station can host science experiments that are then returned to the ground. The capacity is limited, and there is tremendous global demand for returning experiments, which is what Orbital Paradigm aims to serve. Despite being a technology demonstrator mission, the KID cargo capsule was hosting payloads for space robotics company Alatyr, an academic payload for Leibniz University in Hannover, Germany, and a payload for an undisclosed customer.

Scaled-up version to fly in 2026

The hardware was realised within a year by a team of nine engineers within a tight budget of $1 million. A scaled-up version, capable of hosting up to 120 kg of payloads is expected to be launched in 2026, called the 'Learn to Fly mission'. The KID capsule was to be the last payload released by the upper stage of the rocket, after a deboosting burn towards the end of the mission. The rocket never made it to orbit. The KID capsule separated from the rocket, and turned on. The capsule was not expected to survive the trip through the atmosphere, and Orbital Paradigm had no plans to recover the capsule. Because of space and weight constraints, no parachutes were packed into the KID.

ISRO's PSLV-C62 rocket fails to deploy DRDO's Anvesha satellite

Aditya Madanapalle — Mon, 12 Jan 2026 13:51:00 +0530

ISRO's PSLV-C62 mission lifted off as planned from the First Launch Pad at India's spaceport in Sriharikota to favourable weather conditions. The first and second stage performed nominally, but the third stage began to tumble uncontrollably, leading to loss of the mission. The primary payload on board was the hyperspectral Earth imaging satellite 'Anvesha' for the DRDO with strategic applications. ISRO Chairman V Narayanan said, “Today we had attempted the PSLV-C62/EOS-N1 mission. The PSLV vehicle is a four stage vehicle with two solid stages and two liquid stages. The performance of the vehicle up to the end of the coast stage of the third stage was as expected. Close to the end of the third stage, we were seeing little more disturbance in the vehicle roll rates, and subsequently there is a deviation episode in the flight path. We are analysing the data and we shall come back at the earliest.”This is the second consecutive failure of ISRO's work horse rocket, the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV). The PSLV-C61 flight veered off course because of an anomaly in the third stage as well, on 18 May 2025. The PSLV is among the most reliable launchers in the world, having experienced 24 years of error-free operations between the first developmental flight on 20 September 1993 that failed because of an unexpected disturbance during the separation of the second stage and the PSLV-C39 on 31 August, 2017, where the heat shield failed to separate, leaving the payload, IRNSS-1H trapped within the nose cone of the rocket. This was the first time that ISRO has failed to deploy a customer satellite, with all previous failures seen on launches with domestic payloads only.

Transparency is the need of the hour

ISRO has destroyed a spotless record of foreign satellite launches with the loss of the PSLV-C62 flight. A national level probe on the loss of the PSLV-C61 mission was instituted last year, but the findings of the report and the steps taken by ISRO towards a permanent fix has never been disclosed. The failure analysis is typically conducted by independent experts. It is unclear if ISRO has identified the root cause of the failure of the upper stage in the PSLV-C61 flight, and if it has taken any steps to address the issue permanently. Whatever steps ISRO takes in the wake of this loss, needs to be communicated with clear technical details to the general public, to restore the eroding trust in India's national space agency.

Watch Live: ISRO's PSLV-C62 mission to launch DRDO's Anvesha satellite

Aditya Madanapalle — Sun, 11 Jan 2026 18:39:00 +0530

ISRO is launching the PSLV-C62 mission on 12 January at 10:17 hours IST from the First Launch Pad at India's spaceport in Sriharikota. This is the first rocket launch of 2026 by ISRO, the 64th flight of the PSLV, and the fifth flight of the PSLV-DL configuration, that uses a pair of strap-on boosters. The primary passenger on board is the EOS-N1 satellite of the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), dubbed 'Anvesha'. Once deployed, the satellite will form a trinity of satellites with strategic applications for the DRDO, joining the previously launched Kautila and Sindu-Netra satellites in Earth orbit. The hyperspectral satellite will be able to monitor border regions and identify camouflaged vehicles and buildings based on the spectral properties of the materials used. ISRO will be livestreaming the launch and Doordarshan will be broadcasting it. The general public has also been invited to witness the launch at the spaceport. The pre-launch programming will commence at 09:48 hours IST, about half an hour before liftoff. There are 15 other payloads on the launch vehicle. These include the compact space telescope MIRA indigenously developed by Hyderabad-based Eon Space Labs packed onto the EOS-1 CubeSat by TakeMe2Space, that has also included an on-board AI processing payload, AyulSat by Bengaluru-based Orbitaid to demonstrate a satellite servicing port for transferring data, power and fuel, the Orbital Temple collaborative artwork project, and the Munal student satellite for Nepal. The rest of the passengers are academic satellites, or meant for use by the amateur radio community.

There is no POEM platform on the launch

ISRO will not be using a PSLV Orbital Experiment Module (POEM) on this flight, that hosts payloads for technology demonstrations by industries and academia. Instead the upper stage of the rocket will be returning to the Earth and burning up in the atmosphere. The last passenger to be deployed will be the Kestrel Initial Demonstrator cargo capsule for Spanish New Space Startup Orbital Paradigm. This is a reentry module designed to complete the space logistics chain and return experiments and hardware flown to space back to the Earth. The demonstration mission itself has payloads from UK, France and Germany. Orbital Paradigm will only be collecting data during the reentry, and will not be attempting to recover the capsule, which is expected to disintegrate in the atmosphere.

NASA satellite captures thick fog over Ganges Delta amid January 2026 cold wave

Pragya Singha Roy — Fri, 09 Jan 2026 17:02:00 +0530

New Delhi: In early January 2026, a thick cover of winter fog was visible over much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It covered areas north of India to Bangladesh. The cold wave caused poor visibility, cold weather, and hard conditions to millions of people who reside in the fertile plains.According to NASA satellite images, a thick layer of fog was observed over the Ganges Delta on January 6. The haze was caused by cool weather conditions, low winds, and thick humidity at the surface, forming the type of haze that is prevalent in the depths of winter.

Fog grips the Delta

The Terra satellite that is equipped with a remote sensing instrument, the MODIS, was detecting low-lying clouds over the delta and surrounding landmasses. The cold wave was still getting worse, as meteorological agencies in India and Bangladesh had earlier issued warnings of moderate to very dense fog that day.This kind of fog is referred to as radiation fog and is developed when the ground loses heat throughout the night and the still air condenses moisture. It may remain several hours, and more particularly in the areas that are low in altitude, such as the Ganges Delta, where the moisture content is naturally elevated.

Cloud bands over the Bay of Bengal

There were long streaks of clouds above the Bay of Bengal in addition to the land. These occurrences are known as cloud streets and are developed when cooled air travels on warmer waters of the ocean. The air gathers heat and moisture, draws upwards after which it becomes trapped by an overlying layer of warmer air.When the air comes as rotating bands, clouds are formed in some places, and in others, it is clear. The pattern appears clean and structured as seen through space, but it is an indication that there are active processes of weather that are occurring on top of the sea.

Travel disrupted across South Asia

In spite of the fact that the scene appeared quite peaceful on the verge, the situation on the ground was anything but an easy task. The visibility was terrible due to heavy fog in the early morning hours. The airport of Dhaka experienced prolonged delays with the planes finding it hard to land and take off safely.Similar issues were also reported in northern, central and eastern India. The cold and fog took their toll on the region, and road traffic slowed, trains were late, and everyday life was inconvenienced.

ISRO schedules PSLV-C62 / EOS-N1 launch for 12 January

Aditya Madanapalle — Thu, 08 Jan 2026 19:15:00 +0530

ISRO is launching the PSLV-C62 mission from the First Launch Pad at India's spaceport in Sriharikota on 12 January, at 10:17 hours IST. The primary passenger on board is the hyperspectral Earth imaging satellite for the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), dubbed 'Anvesha'. This satellite has strategic applications, and can be used for monitoring the border, and identify camouflaged vehicles and buildings based on the spectral properties of the materials used. The satellite captures many more individual wavelengths of lights than the three or four colours that consumer cameras and smartphones capture. There are a total of fifteen copassengers that are ridesharing on the mission. Dhruva Space is dispatching a number of academic satellites on the mission, including CGUSAT, DSUSAT, LACHIT and Thybolt-3. The latter two have store-and-forward capabilities for use by the amateur radio community. Hyderabad based New Space Startup EON Space Labs is demonstrating its MIRA space telescope with satellite partner Takeme2Space, that has included a package to demonstrate on-satellite AI capabilities. The data will be processed by the satellite before being transmitted down to the surface. This satellite has both strategic and civilian applications, and is a pathfinder mission for an Earth Observation Constellation planned by EON Space Labs. Also on board is Laxman Gyanpith's Sanskarsat.

A number of foreign satellites on the flight

There are a number of foreign satellites on the flight. The Theos-2 satellite has been jointly build by Thailand and UK. Then there is the Munal satellite, a technology demonstration mission by Nepal University. This is the second cubesat launched by Nepal, with the MOU for the launch being signed in August 2024. Then there are a number of payloads from Brazil. Edusat will demonstrate IoT sensors, Uaisat will be used to collect data on agriculture, Galaxy Explorer will measure radiation, Aldebaran-1 is for marine rescues and Orbital Temple is an art project that anyone in the world can participate in. Both Orbital Temple and Uaisat use the PocketQube 1P miniaturised satellite. The Kestrel Cargo Capsule demonstrator is from Orbital Paradigm, a Spanish new space startup. This capsule will be the last payload to be released by the rocket, with both the PS4 upper stage and the capsule reentering the atmosphere. For this reason, ISRO has not included the POEM platform on this flight.

What is RNA World Hypothesis?

Aditya Madanapalle — Wed, 07 Jan 2026 12:46:00 +0530

Most life on Earth today use DNA molecules for storing genetic information, and proteins for catalysing the reactions necessary for life, such as copying the DNA and assembling other proteins. However, this results in a chicken and egg problem, where either does not work without the other. Proteins are needed to replicate DNA, but without DNA, there is no blueprint available to assemble proteins. This is a circular dependency with no route to start from scratch. This is why scientists believe that early life did not rely on DNA, but instead on RNA that can store genetic information, and fold up to act as enzymes. The RNA World Hypothesis suggests that life on a primordial Earth about four billion years ago relied on RNA as the primary molecule for both storing genetic information and speeding up biochemical reactions. This also makes sense because RNA is easier to assemble from basic chemicals than DNA or proteins, and it could have kick-started life that then began to advance in complexity. RNA can fold into shapes that act as enzymes, and these are known as ribosomes. Some ribosomes can even copy strands of other RNA.

RNA continues to play an important role in life

In modern cells, RNA continues to play a role. Ribosomes help assemble proteins, and viruses use RNA to store genetic information. The RNA world hypothesis is an elegant solution to the chicken-and-egg-problem with DNA, about whether genes or enzymes emerged first. RNA has formed from simple molecules such as sugars and bases in lab environments, and the most ancient fossils also support the RNA world hypothesis. Most recently, research from the asteroid Bennu indicates that all the raw material for formation of RNA was available on the ancient rock, which is possibly a fragment of a watery world battered to bits in the chaotic infancy of the solar system. In 2024, researchers from the Salk Institute evolved an RNA ribosome that copies RNA strands accurately enough for traits to pass on over generations, demonstrating the initiation of evolution in an RNA system, boosting the case for RNA self-replication. In 2025, a team of researchers from University College London showed amino acids can link to RNA naturally, creating short protein-like chains, explaining how RNA could have started directing the assembly of proteins, providing a bridge to the DNA world. Recently, scientists from Tohoku University in Japan mixed RNA with borates and basalt, mimicking hot underground water on ancient Earth, and found RNA forming with the borates stabilising the reactions. All of these studies support the RNA World Hypothesis.

How are planets formed?

Aditya Madanapalle — Tue, 06 Jan 2026 16:51:00 +0530

Stars are formed in vast clouds of gas and dust. A dense knot starts accreting material under the influence of gravity, with a slight initial rotation causing the infalling material feeding a growing star into a circumstellar disk. Once the star reaches the temperature and pressure necessary to sustain the fusion of hydrogen into helium, a star is considered to be born. Now, the rest of the planets are assembled from the leftover material. All of the planets are formed in the same plane, because of the circumstellar disk. They also orbit the host star on the same plane. This is the reason all the worlds in the Solar System are arranged along a straight line in the sky. In the circumstellar disk, dust, ices and gases all clump up. The inner region around the host star contains mostly rocky material, with the ices and gases blown away. Here, pebbles clump up into boulders, which clump up into mountains, which them accumulate into worlds. Once an object reaches around 450 km in diameter, it assumes a round shape under the influence of hydrostatic equilibrium. Then the interior becomes differentiated, forming a core, mantle and crust. The heavier elements sink to the bottom, towards the core, while the lighter elements float on top. At times, such protoplanets can be battered to bits.

The chaotic infancy of star systems

There are cataclysmic collisions in the early stages of planet formation, where worlds may pulverize others. The metallic asteroid Psyche may be a stripped core of a long-lost planet. An object called Theia, about the size of Mars smashed into the Earth in the infancy of the Solar System, forming the Moon. In the outer reaches of a star system, where the ice and gas is not blown away, gas giants and ice giants can form. There is not sufficient material for such large worlds to form in the inner star system. These worlds have a dominant gravitational influence, and may prevent the formation of some worlds, and eject others outside the system. At times, such worlds can migrate inwards to the host star after formation, resulting in Hot Jupiters. Our astronomical instruments have detected massive collisions in circumstellar disks, as well as gaps where new planets are being formed around distant stars. What is surprising to the scientists is the staggering variety of worlds that we are finding out there, that are unlike any in the Solar System, including puffballs, super Earths, water worlds, Hyceaen planets and exotic rocky worlds. Humans know of over 6,000 exoplanets now, but not a single rocky world in a habitable zone around a Sun-like star.

How are stars formed?

Aditya Madanapalle — Tue, 06 Jan 2026 16:40:00 +0530

Stars are formed within molecular clouds, dense regions of interstellar gas, mostly hydrogen, embedded with dust. A dense knot forms in the cold gas under the influence of gravity, drawing in more of the surrounding gas and dust, forming a prestellar core, that is a dense clump with no central heating source. As the material continues to collapse, the infalling gas and dust begins swirling around because of a slight initial velocity, and flattens into a disk that feeds the embryonic star. As the dense core grows in size, the center heats up gradually to thousands of degrees Kelvin. A protostar forms at this stage, supported by gas pressure, still accreting material from the surrounding infalling envelope. The magnetism of the swirling material results in bipolar outflows perpendicular to the accretion disk. A hot corino develops around the protostar, where the ice mantles surrounding the dust grains evaporate, releasing complex organic molecules into the gas phase. The temperature rises sufficiently for the ices in the environment to evaporate, essentially.

The birth of a star

As the temperature and pressures rise, the accretion reduces, and the infalling envelope disperses. The object becomes a pre-main sequence star. For solar-mass objects, these are called TT Tauri stars. Both low mass stars and high mass stars fuse hydrogen, but in slightly different ways. Once the pressure and temperatures rise sufficiently for the star to sustain hydrogen fusion, hydrostatic equilibrium is established, allowing the star to maintain its shape, and it enters into the main sequence. For a solar mass star, the process takes between 10 and 50 million years. The planets are assembled in the material leftover from the formation of the star.

Landing location of ISRO's Chandrayaan 4 mission revealed

Aditya Madanapalle — Mon, 05 Jan 2026 19:07:00 +0530

In a written response to a question posed at the Rajya Sabha, State Minister for Space Jitendra Singh revealed the landing location of ISRO's Chandrayaan 4 sample return mission. Singh stated, “The targeted landing site for Chandrayaan-4 is in the southern polar region of Moon (~84˚ to 86˚ south latitudes). This region is expected to be geologically diverse, having close proximity to Permanently Shadowed Regions (PSR) and having possibility of finding water ice, also the polar regions of Moon remain largely unexplored and global scientific community is focused on exploring it in detail.”The Chandrayaan 4 mission is a sample return mission that will use both a scoop and a drill to dig up lunar regolith and return it to the Earth for detailed analysis by laboratories here. Chandrayaan 4 will be landing closer to the lunar south pole than the Chandrayaan 3 mission. ISRO was previously considering using an alternate landing site of the Chandrayaan 3 mission as the landing zone for the Chandrayaan 4 mission, at a latitude of about 70˚ south. The highlands around the south pole are believed to retain water delivered to the Moon in the chaotic infancy of the solar system by asteroids and comets. Sunlight never reaches the floors of the craters here, where water ice may exist.

Chandrayaan 4 mission profile

ISRO's Chandrayaan 4 mission will be the most complex and ambitious interplanetary mission undertaken by ISRO. All the elements cannot possibly fit into a single rocket, so ISRO will be using a pair of LVM3 rockets, the most powerful operational rocket in its fleet. The first stack consists of an ascender and a lander, while the second stack is made up of the propulsion, transfer and reentry modules. The two stacks will link up in Earth orbit before the propulsion module carries the spacecraft to the Moon. The lander will then collect the samples, transfer them to the ascender, that will fly to lunar orbit and transfer the material to the transfer module, which will return to the Earth and release the reentry module towards the surface. ISRO plans to launch the Chandrayaan 4 mission in 2028.

You can get Vikram lander legs for your Moon Lander

Aditya Madanapalle — Mon, 05 Jan 2026 18:58:00 +0530

ISRO is making the legs used for the Vikram lander for technology transfer to Indian industries. The landing legs were initially developed for the Chandrayaan 2 mission, which crashed into the Moon on 07 September, 2019. An enhanced, fortified version was developed for the Chandrayaan 3 mission, which successfully landed on the Moon on 23 August, 2023. A number of New Space startups across the country have ambitious to operate o0n the lunar surface, and ISRO is now making the landing leg mechanism to any Indian industry partners who wish to use the legs for their own landers. The UR Rao Satellite Centre in Bengaluru, that assembles most of the spacecraft launched by India is offering the Lander Leg Mechanism. The legs can accommodate landers up to 800 kg in mass. Four of these legs are designed to be attached to the lower deck of the Moon Landers. The main goal of the lander leg assemblies is to ensure a safe, soft landing on the lunar surface. The legs are designed for spacecraft approaching the lunar surface with a vertical velocity of less than two metres per second, and a horizontal velocity of less than 0.5 metres per second. The lander legs mechanism are designed for a maximum inclination of 12 degrees.

Advanced Shock Absorbers

On the ground, ISRO has tested the lander legs beyond the specified capacities. The legs have telescopic damper assemblies that absorb some of the shock of the landing with a telescoping piston attached to the footpads. The footpads themselves have an advanced design, and use a honeycomb damper that crushes at the point of impact, absorbing additional shock. There is also a Knee Damper Assembly, that also absorbs some of the excess energy. The three cushioning assemblies together ensure that the lander can reach the lunar surface safely. Each of the subassemblies can be tested individually. ISRO also has a provision for sensing elements that indicate the crushing.

How are rainbows formed?

Aditya Madanapalle — Mon, 05 Jan 2026 18:34:00 +0530

Rainbows are natural spectacles that often appear after a storm, given favourable conditions. They split the light from the Sun into constituent elements, displaying an arc spanning the entire spectrum of light visible to human eyes. Rainbows are formed from a complex interplay of light, water and the atmosphere, governed by the principles of refraction, reflection and dispersion. The bows are a result of sunlight interacting with raindrops suspended in the air. When the light from the Sun passes through a raindrop, three processes take place. First, the light is refracted as it enters the droplet. Refraction is the bending of light as it moves from one medium to another with a different density. Here, the water is much denser than the surrounding air, that causes the light to shift its direction slightly. How much the light is diffracted, depends on its wavelength. Shorter wavelengths like blue and violet bend a lot more than the longer ones like yellow and red. The light then reflects off the inner surface of the droplet, bendinng once more as it exits back into the air, where it refracts for a second time.

A prismatic masterpiece

The process results in a spectrum of colours. Now the rainbow forms an arc because of geometry. Raindrops act like tiny prisms, and the angle at which light exits them forms a cone of light that reaches the eyes of the observer. Red light bends about 42 degrees, with the bluer shades being slightly less. When a rainbow appears, the light is being refracted by countless raindrops, each contributing a specific colour at a specific angle. The circular arc appears because the droplets are spread across the sky, but the ground cuts off the lower half, so we only see a semicircle. In ideal viewing conditions, especially from higher altitudes, it is possible to see circular rainbows. The order of the colours in the rainbow, violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red is consistent because of how wavelengths disperse. Red, with the longest wavelength appears on the outer edge, while violet, which has the shortest, appears on the inner edge. Interestingly, the rainbow that each individual sees is unique to their perspective. Even someone standing a few metres away will see light refracted by a different set of raindrops, creating their own unique, personal rainbow.

The conditions in which rainbows appear

Atmospheric conditions also play a role in the appearance of raindrops. It needs to be day time for rainbows, although moonbows are visible at night. It should also be raining. Rainbows often appear just after a storm clears and sunlight breaks through. The Sun has to be low on the horizon, less than 42 degrees for the rainbow to be visible. This is why rainbows are most commonly seen in the early mornings or late afternoons. At times, secondary rainbows can appear with colours in the reverse order. These are formed from light reflecting twice within the raindrop before exiting at a slightly different angle, of about 50 degrees. The region between the primary and the secondary rainbow is called Alexander’s band, and appears darker because the light is redirected in other directions. Supernumerary rainbows are faint pink or green bands inside the primary arc, forming as a result of interference, where light waves reinforce or cancel out each other. These wave effects are enhanced by smaller, finer raindrops.

Two autonomous Crew Module dockings are part of ISRO's Gaganyaan Programme

Aditya Madanapalle — Sun, 04 Jan 2026 14:43:00 +0530

ISRO is planning a total of eight flights in its ambitious Gaganyaan programme to develop the space transportation architecture necessary for a sustained human presence in space. Three of these flights are developmental uncrewed flights for the Human Rated Launch Vehicle Mark 3 and the Gaganyaan Crew Module, two are crewed flights, and one is to deploy the first module of the Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS). Two flights in the programme will be for autonomous, uncrewed dockings, one to the International Space Station, and one to the Base module of BAS. The International Space Station (ISS) uses the International Docking System Standard (IDSS) for its ports, that can be used by the SpaceX Dragon spaceships, as well as European, American and Japanese cargo shuttles. The same docking interface will also be used in the future Commercial Low Earth Orbit Destinations, that will replace the ISS after its retirement in the 2030s. ISRO is designing the docking ports on BAS according to international standards, allowing interoperability with the orbital hardware planned for the next decade by both other national space agencies and private New Space startups around the world.

ISRO's BAS to benefit all humans

On 8 May 2025, at the GLEX 2025 Summit at the Yashobhoomi Conference Centre in New Delhi, Director of the Human Spaceflight Centre at ISRO, DK Singh said, "ISRO believes that the space station is going to be a laboratory for advanced research in various domains. Our reason is to provide Indian as well as global researchers access to the lab at a reasonable price, and the cutting edge research which can happen, especially in the domains of life science and pharmaceuticals. It can be a lifesaver, so there can be very good outcomes which can serve humanity for a long time."

ISRO to deploy first module of India's space station as part of Gaganyaan Programme

Aditya Madanapalle — Sun, 04 Jan 2026 14:20:00 +0530

ISRO's ambitious Gaganyaan programme is an effort to develop and demonstrate the technologies necessary for sustained presence of humans in space. ISRO is upgrading its mightiest operational rocket with one fit for crewed spaceflight, called the Human Rated Launch Vehicle Mark 3 (HR-LVM3), carrying India's first spaceship, the Gaganyaan Crew Module. This space transportation architecture will be capable of ferrying humans to and from orbital complexes, including India's own Bharatiya Antariksh Station, that ISRO plans to assemble by 2035. After the three uncrewed developmental flights, and the pair of crewed flights, ISRO plans an autonomous docking of the Gaganyaan crew module to the International Space Station, followed by the launch of the Base Module of the Bharatiya Antariksh Station, and then an uncrewed flight to dock a Gaganyaan crew module to the Base module, completing the Gaganyaan Programme as it is envisioned now. The deployment of the base module of the Bharatiya Antariksh Station was formally approved by the Union Cabinet in September last year, as an extension of the Gaganyaan programme. The configuration of the base module has also been finalised.

Configuration of the Base Module

The base module has a diameter of 3.8 metres, and a length of eight metres, with equipment on one side and crew sleeping quarters on the other. There are docking hatches on both the front and the back. There are propulsion systems towards the back, and an operations area towards the front. ISRO plans to execute a series of operations with the base module, including control and orbit raising manoeuvres, crewed and uncrewed dockings. The Base module will essentially be a testbed that paves the way for future, long-duration missions to Earth orbit, where crews of three will occupy the orbital complex for around six months at a time, similar to operations on the International Space Station and the Chinese Tiangong Space Station.

There are two human spaceflights in ISRO's Gaganyaan Programme

Aditya Madanapalle — Sun, 04 Jan 2026 13:34:00 +0530

There are eight planned flights in ISRO's ambitious Gaganyaan Programme to domestically develop the space transportation system to ferry humans to and from Earth orbit. Three of these are developmental flights designated as G1 to G3, to demonstrate the safety of the rocket and the spaceship. ISRO is increasing the capacity of its mightiest operational rocket to develop the Human Rated Launch Vehicle Mark 3 (HR-LVM3), and is building its first spaceship, the Gaganyaan crew module, which will be supported by a service module for orbital manoeuvres, attitude control and emergency aborts. Then there are the pair of Human-Rated missions, H1 and H2. ISRO is planning to execute one Gaganyaan flight roughly every six months. The First Gaganyaan uncrewed flight is scheduled to take place in January itself. According to the latest timelines revealed by ISRO, the first crewed flight is now scheduled to take place in the 2027-2028 timeframe. The first crewed flight, H1 will see one Gaganyatri, while the second crewed flight will carry two. The Gaganyaan G4 and G5 missions will be autonomous dockings with the ISS and the Base module of the Bharatiya Antariksh Station, while a dedicated mission between these flights will deploy this first module, BAS-01.

Gaganyaan Crewed Flight mission profile

The Gaganyatris will liftoff from the Second Launch Pad at Sriharikota, which has been upgraded for human spaceflight, with an elevator for crew access and a zipline for emergency evacuation from the launchpad. The crewed flights will see the Gaganyatris orbiting the Earth at an altitude of about 400 km, for up to three days, during which time they will conduct microgravity experiments. The Crew Module will jettison the Service Module before reentry, which is expected to burn up harmlessly in the atmosphere. The Crew Module will then use a complex series of 10 parachutes to sched velocity for an ocean splashdown. The primary splashdown zone is the Arabian Sea, because of the waters being calmer than the Bay of Bengal. The Indian Navy will then lead the recovery operations.

ISRO plans three developmental flights for Gaganyaan Programme

Aditya Madanapalle — Sun, 04 Jan 2026 13:10:00 +0530

ISRO is embarking on the ambitious Gaganyaan Programme to develop the space transportation architecture necessary for safely transporting humans from Earth to Earth orbit and back. ISRO is increasing the capacity of its mightiest rocket, the Launch Vehicle Mark 3 (LVM3), for a human-rated version. The spaceship is the Gaganyaan Crew Module which can accommodate a maximum of three passengers at a time, but the crewed flights are planned with one or two passengers on board at a time. Before the first crewed flight in 2027, ISRO plans three uncrewed developmental flights. These uncrewed developmental flights will be used to validate the brand new hardware, the procedures for launch, and the recovery of the crew module following the ocean splashdown. The primary splashdown zone is in the Arabian Sea because of the waters being calmer than the Bay of Bengal. The recovery is a joint operation between ISRO and the Indian Navy. To test the environmental conditions within the crew module, ISRO will use the Vyommitra humanoid robot, which is a more humane approach than the dogs or chimps used in other human spaceflight programmes during their developmental stage.

The first Gaganyaan flight

The first flight in the Gaganyaan programme is scheduled to take place in January 2026 itself. ISRO began stacking the rocket last month, and the integration activities were nearing completion in December 2025, according to a response by the State Minister for Space, Jitendra Singh to a question posed in the Lok Sabha. This will be the first fully integrated flight of the Gaganyaan space transportation architecture. ISRO plans to launch one Gaganyaan developmental flight about every six months, and needs to remain on track now to ensure that there are no further delays to the rest of the programme.

Mysterious cosmic flashes traced to black holes

Aditya Madanapalle — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 17:08:00 +0530

Using data from an array of ground based telescopes, astronomers have determined that mysterious cosmic flashes known as luminous fast blue optical transients (LFBOTs) are the result of tidal disruption event by black holes. Here, a black hole containing up to 100 times the mass of the Sun can completely shred a massive stellar companion within days. The clearest evidence yet that these rare cosmic flashes are not merely atypical supernovae is from the LFBOT designated as 2024wpp. The research challenges existing models of black hole physics, and advances the understanding of the life cycles of stars. LFBOTs are among the more puzzling cosmic phenomena discovered over the past few decades. These flashes are bright in blue, ultraviolet light, which fades away rapidly, leaving behind faint X-ray and radio emissions. A little more than a dozen or so of these events have been recorded. Astronomers have long debated if they are caused by unusual supernovae or material falling into a black hole. The new research based on the brightest LFBOT observed so far indicates that they are neither. The production of LFBOTs requires more energy than a supernova can produce.

The spaghettification of a star

One of the interesting implications of the study is that LFBOTs are caused by intermediate mass black holes, elusive objects that have to exist in theory, but have not been discovered yet, though a few candidates are known. The scientists believe that AT 2024wpp was caused by a long-lived black hole binary system that had been siphoning material from a massive companion for an extended period of time. When the companion star ventured too close, it was shredded by tidal forces, with the material becoming entrained in the rotating accretion disk. The friction produces powerful bursts of energetic X-ray, ultraviolet and blue light. The shredded companion star is likely to have contained over ten times the mass of the Sun.

Webb investigates hazy Sub-Neptune with atypical atmosphere

Aditya Madanapalle — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 16:21:00 +0530

Astronomers have used the James Webb Space Telescope to peer into the skies of LP 791-18 c, a sub-Neptune exoplanet orbiting a cool red dwarf star at a distance of 86 lightyears from the Sun. The astronomers expected the world to resemble other temperate sub-Neptunes, straddling the mass gap between Earth and Neptune. Other such worlds have been studied, such as K2-18 b and TOI-270 d that have cloud-free atmospheres rich in methane and carbondioxide. Instead, the astronomers were surprised to discover that LP 791-18 c had a hazy atmosphere rich in methane, with no signs of carbon dioxide. The research indicates that exoplanets that appear similar at first glance may have dramatically different cloudiness, chemistry and evolutionary history. LP 791-18 c is exposed to the same amount of irradiation from the host star as the other comparison targets. The haze on LP 791-18 c is likely to be driven by photochemistry, where the ultraviolet radiation from the red dwarf host star breaks apart methane in the upper atmosphere, with the fragments recombining into heavier hydrocarbons, similar to the process that forms the orange smog on the Saturnian moon of Titan.

Why are there differences in atmospheres?

The researchers also discovered that the spectrum of the planet remains consistent irrespective of whether or not the stellar activity is included in the analysis, indicating that the unusual atmospheric chemistry is not an illusion caused by star spots or flares, which pollutes the studies of exoplanetary atmospehres. The researchers believe that the formation history of a planet has a role to play in its atmospheric chemistry. Worlds formed in an environment with an abundance of ices will have a completely different chemistry than worlds assembled from drier, carbon-rich material. The research underscores the diversity of exoplanets. A paper describing the research has been published in Nature Astronomy.

New species are being discovered at unprecedented rate

Aditya Madanapalle — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 16:10:00 +0530

New research indicates that scientists are discovering new species faster than ever before, with over 16,000 new species being discovered each year. The discovery of new species is expected to increase in the future, with the research indicating that biodiversity among certain groups, such as plants, fungi, arachnids, fishes and amphibians is far richer than scientists previously thought. Only 15 per cent of the estimated eukaryotic species have been described since the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus set out to identify and name every living organism on Earth 300 years ago. The team examined the taxonomic histories of about two million species spanning all groups of living organisms. Between 2015 and 2020, the researchers documented more than 16,000 new species being described each year, including more than 10,000 animals, dominated by arthropods and insects, 2,500 plants and 2,000 fungi. The rate at which new species are being discovered far outpaces the rate at which species are going extinct, which is estimated to be around 10 per cent every year.

More species to be discovered in the future

The researchers also examined the rates at which new species are appearing over time, to project how many new species will be discovered and described in the future. They estimate that there may be as many as 115,000 fish and 41,999 amphibian species, with only 42,000 fish and 9,000 amphibians described at the moment. The researchers also project that the final number of plant species may be over half a million. A paper describing the research has been published in Science Advances.

Scientists trace chemical history of Milky Way

Aditya Madanapalle — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 16:00:00 +0530

Researchers have investigated how galaxies like our Milky Way form and evolve, with a focus on two distinct groups of stars with different chemical compositions, a feature of the galaxy known as chemical bimodality. The stars close to the Sun can be classified into two types based on their iron and magnesium content. These two groups form separate sequences in a chemical diagram, even though they overlap in metallicity, which is how rich they are in heavy elements such as iron. This differences have long-puzzled astronomers.

For the new study, the researchers used sophisticated computer simulations to recreate the formation of galaxies like the Milky Way in a virtual universe. By analysing 30 such simulated galaxies, the researchers explored the formation of the chemical sequences. These simulations help scientists better understand how other large, complex galaxies evolve. Bimodality has not been discovered yet in our sister galaxy, Andromeda. The research also sheds light on the conditions in the early universe, the role of cosmic gas flows between galaxies and galaxy mergers in the chemical evolution of galaxies.

A diversity of processes can result in bimodality

The research reveals that a number of different mechanisms can result in bimodality, including bursts of star formation followed by periods of little activity, and changes in the inflow of gas from outside the galaxy. Previously scientists had believed that galaxy mergers, such as the Gaia-Sausage-Enceladus collision is not a necessary condition for the chemical patterns to emerge. The simulations indicated that metal-poor gas from the circumgalactic medium plays a crucial role in forming the second sequences of stars. A paper describing the research has been published in Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.

Brown Dwarfs may not resemble Gas Giants

Aditya Madanapalle — Tue, 30 Dec 2025 18:19:00 +0530

Stars form from dense knots in molecular clouds that grow by accreting gas and dust, till the temperatures and pressures rise sufficiently to sustain the fusion of hydrogen and helium. Brown dwarfs are exotic objects that begin to form in the same way as stars, but are unable to sustain hydrogen fusion. They cool off over billions of years, and end up as objects similar to gas giants, but containing many times the mass of Jupiter. Astronomers have discovered atmospheric storms on brown dwarfs, as well as dust clouds. Scientists had assumed that the storms on brown dwarfs were similar to the storms on Jupiter, with clear bands and storms that can remain stable for long durations. The researchers focused on a warm or young brown dwarf, designated as VHS 1256B. Webb had directly detected dust in the clouds of this brown dwarf, that produced a high variation in luminosity over time. These fluctuations indicate dramatic atmospheric features, such as large dust storms. The researchers simulated the atmosphere of the brown dwarf, which were then reconciled with the observations leading to a surprise.

Large-scale equatorial waves

The researchers discovered that the large-amplitude variability of the brown dwarf was caused by a process unlike anything seen on Jupiter. The variability was caused by large-scale equatorial waves, created by a temperature imbalance of the clouds near the equator that heat up the atmosphere, producing large dust storms that move east to west. The phenomenon is known as cloud-radiative feedback and explains the both the periodic variations in luminosity as well as the long-term shifts in the light curve from the brown dwarf. A paper describing the research has been published in Science Advances.

Wobbling black hole confirms Einstein's theory

Aditya Madanapalle — Tue, 30 Dec 2025 18:07:00 +0530

Astronomers have observed wobbles in the inner accretion disk of a black hole for the first time. The process is known as frame-dragging or the Lense-Thirring precession and describes how black holes drag nearby objects such as stars, inducing instabilities in their orbits. The research is based on examination of a tidal disruption event designated as AT2020afhd where a star was torn apart after wandering too close to a black hole. The star was spaghettified, and stretched out into a swirling disk around the black hole. Some of the infalling material was channeled by the tangled magnetic fields produced by the accretion disk itself into relativistic polar jets, with the material from the shredded star moving at nearly the speed of light. By tracking rhythmic changes in both the X-rays and radio signals from the source, the team of astronomers observed that both the disk and the jet were wobbling in unison with a periodicity of 20 days. The observations confirm a prediction of General Relativity, first proposed by Albert Einstein in 1913 and mathematically described by Lense and Thirring in 1918.

First observation of its kind

A paper describing the research has been published in Science Advances. One of the study authors Cosimo Inserra says, "Our study shows the most compelling evidence yet of Lense-Thirring precession – a black hole dragging space time along with it in much the same way that a spinning top might drag the water around it in a whirlpool. Unlike previous TDEs studied, which have steady radio signals, the signal for AT2020afhd showed short-term changes, which we were unable to attribute to the energy release from the black hole and its surrounding components. This further confirmed the dragging effect in our minds and offers scientists a new method for probing black holes."

Colliding Galaxies fuel rapid black hole growth

Aditya Madanapalle — Tue, 30 Dec 2025 17:46:00 +0530

New data confirms that collisions between galaxies drive the most powerful active galactic nuclei. Most large galaxies contain supermassive black holes in their cores. If these black holes are actively feeding on the surrounding gas and dust, they form an accretion disk of infalling material where the tortured material glows in frequencies across the electromagnetic spectrum because of the extreme friction. The process results in 'bright' black holes, unlike Sagittarius A* at the heart of the Milky Way, which is currently inactive. These bright black holes can outshine all the stars in the surrounding galaxy. Astronomers had suspected that the black holes co-evolve and grow with the surrounding galaxies, with new observations from the Euclid telescope providing evidence in support of this hypothesis. The researchers examined hundreds of thousands of galaxy mergers from up to ten billion years ago, and discovered that AGNs are between two and six times more common in merging galaxies as compared to counterparts that are not merging. The mergers are most strongly linked to bright black holes that are shrouded in dust, these are the very brightest AGNs.

A better handle on Galaxy Evolution

A paper describing the research has been published in Astronomy and Astrophysics. one of the study authors, Allison Man says "We’re starting to explore just how supermassive black holes form and evolve, and to pin down the connection between galaxy mergers, supermassive black hole mergers and how they contribute to building up the most massive black holes in the universe." The astronomers believe that the quiescent supermassive black holes that are not voraciously feeding on the surrounding gas and dust may have been formed and evolved very differently in comparison to the actively feeding 'bright' black holes.

Astronomers may have spotted superkilonova for first time

Aditya Madanapalle — Tue, 30 Dec 2025 17:32:00 +0530

A supernova is a violent explosion from a dying star, while a kilonova is produced by the merger between two neutron stars or a neutron star and a black hole. A team of astronomers may have discovered a superkilonova for the first time, where a supernova is followed by a kilonova. So far, scientists have discovered only one event that has been unambiguously confirmed to be a kilonova, detected by gravitational wave observatories and designated as GW170817. The new event, designated as AT2025ulz is a candidate, with a supernova blast hours before the kilonova. The initial eruption was detected by the Zwicky Transient Facility, that scans the skies for objects that appear to change positions or luminosities. The Keck Observatory turned towards the target, and captured the fading eruption, in red light, similar to the only confirmed kilonova detected eight years earlier. The red colours came from heavy elements such as gold, that block blue light, but let red light through. Days after the blast, the source brightened again, this time glowing in blue, which were signs of a stripped-envelope core-collapsed supernova.

The complex, dynamic event

The mysterious explosion did not look like a classic supernova or a kilonova. The observations from the gravitational wave detectors indicated that at least one of the two objects in the interaction contained less mass than the Sun. Scientists believe that collapse of the massive star resulted in not one, but a pair of neutron stars through fission, that then subsequently collided. It is also possible that the star fragmented into a disk, that then coalesced into a neutron star. A paper describing the research has been published in The Astrophysical Journal Letters.

Indian Astronomers spot complex hydrocarbons in young stellar disk

Aditya Madanapalle — Mon, 29 Dec 2025 18:49:00 +0530

Scientists from the Indian Institute of Astrophysics have reported the discovery of Poly Atomic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the debris disk surrounding a newborn star. The star, designated as T Chamaeleontis (T. Cha) is at a distance of 350 lightyears from the Earth in the small southern constellation of Chamaeleon. PAHs are flat molecules shaped like honeycomb, made up of carbon and hydrogen. These are believed to be the earliest precursor to the complex biochemistry as seen on Earth. PAHs are frequently discovered in stellar nurseries, vast clouds of gas and dust within which new stars are born. Discovering PAHs in the debris disk surrounding newborn stars is challenging because the gas and dust absorbs most of the ultraviolet radiation from the host star. The discovery was made using archival data from the James Webb Space Telescope, that is data not captured specifically for the study. The data was collected in 2022, when the collapse in the inner wall of the circumstellar disk allowed for ultraviolet radiation to leak through.

Astronomers to track evolution of PAHs over time

A paper describing the research has been published in The Astronomical Journal. The discovery of PAHs around a low-mass star is challenging. One of the study authors, Arun Roy explains, "JWST’s MIRI has now revealed them clearly in T Cha and this is one of the lowest mass stars with PAH detection in their circumstellar disk. This sudden illumination excited the PAHs in the disk, making them glow strongly in JWST’s detectors. It was like a curtain lifting, revealing chemistry that had been hidden for year. With JWST still in its prime, we can now revisit the disk of T Cha at multiple times, measuring how PAHs evolve with disk in time."

NASA's NEO Surveyor mission will protect Earth from asteroids

Aditya Madanapalle — Mon, 29 Dec 2025 16:15:00 +0530

NASA is building the first spacecraft specifically to identify large numbers of asteroids and comets that can impact the planet in the future. The Near Earth Object (NEO) Surveyor spacecraft will scan the Solar System using sensitive infrared detectors to track the most elusive objects in the neighbourhood of the Earth. Dark asteroids and comets do not reflect much of the light from the Sun in optical frequencies, but shed the excess heat, which is visible as infrared radiation. No large asteroids are comets are expected to strike the Earth for centuries into the future, but even smaller, denser objects can cause significant local damage on impact. Particularly problematic are asteroids that approach the Earth from the direction of the Sun. The light from the Sun saturates detectors in this direction, making in challenging to spot the dark rocks hidden in the glare of Sunlight. The spacecraft will use a large sunshade to protect the detectors from saturation, and block light from the Sun while still being able to observe within 45° of the Sun. NASA is aiming to deploy the NEO Surveyor spacecraft at the first Lagrange point in the Sun-Earth system, a region of stable galaxy between the Earth and the Sun where the spacecraft can remained stationed with minimal expenditure of fuel.

Construction of the NEO Surveyor

The NEO Surveyor instrument enclosure has shiny black and white surfaces to manage the temperature of the spacecraft, and to prevent the heat produced by the spacecraft itself from interfering with the pair of sensitive infrared detectors. The telescope has an aperture of nearly 50 centimetres. The three-mirror anastigmat telescope uses a set of curved mirrors to focus light onto the infrared detectors in a way that minimises optical aberrations. The NEO Surveyor project is being developed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California, with NASA aiming to launch the mission in late 2027.

Himalayan Snow Droughts puts water security of millions at risk

Aditya Madanapalle — Mon, 29 Dec 2025 14:45:00 +0530

Researchers from IIT Jammu and IIT Mandi have determined that snow droughts are recurring with alarming frequency across the Hindu Kush Himalayas, threatening the water security of the nearly two billion people who live downstream. Periods of abnormally low snow accumulation results in changes in the timings and volumes of river flows, that then has an adverse impact on agriculture and hydro power generation. The biggest impact is on communities that rely on meltwater in the spring for irrigation and domestic use. The researchers identified moderate to severe snow loss in 2008, 2011, 2015 and 2016 in the North-West, Amu-Darya, Indus, Salween and Mekong basins, that were linked to both declined snow cover days and snow cover persistence anomalies. Snow droughts are the reduction in the buildup of snow in the winters, which then has an impact on the domestic and industrial sustenance, as well as local and global economy. The snow cover also has a role in recreational winter snow tourism, that generates billions of dollars in revenue. The Hindu Kush Himalayas have seen the most significant decline compared to the global snow cover.

The Warming Mountains

The Hindu Kush Himalayas is warming at a faster rate than the global average, rising at 0.74°C more than anywhere else. The droughts are most pronounced in a critical elevation band at altitudes between 3,000 and 6,000 metres, where the snow loss is accelerated by elevation-dependent warming. In the Himalayas, there is now more rainfall than snow, resulting in lower reservoirs for meltwater in spring. The researchers used satellite imagery and reanalysis databases between 1999 and 2016 to develop the most detailed mapping of Himalayan snow droughts so far. A paper describing the results has been published in Scientific Reports.

Need for more holistic water management practices

In a News Feature by Nature, one of the authors of the study, Hemant Singh says, "We found moderate to severe snow droughts occurring in the region as recently as 2015 and 2016, with particularly strong signals in Afghanistan and northern India. We need to treat snow as a strategic water asset. That means mapping it, conserving it, and managing meltwater efficiently." While the glaciers retreat slowly, snow droughts can suddenly cut off the water supply, with farmers in the western Himalayas relying on late-spring meltwater. Even a week of reduced supply can stress the agricultural yields. The researchers recommend that policy-makers move beyond a glacier-centric approach for one that holistically accounts for the full mountain water cycle.

Impact on Agriculture

According to Mahesh Palawat, an independent expert not involved with the study, from the private SkyMet Weather Services, explains in a blog post, "More worryingly, glaciers continue to melt, and the absence of fresh snowfall is failing to replenish them. This poses a long-term threat not only to the fragile Himalayan ecosystem but also to millions of people living downstream who depend on these glaciers for sustained water supply." The shortage of both snow and rain in the Himalayas is directly impacting agriculture, particularly horticulture and apple orchards. Residents of the hills as well as the entire population of the plains is exposed to more water risk because of the drought-like situation in the Himalayas.

Astronomers map boundary of Sun for first time

Aditya Madanapalle — Sun, 28 Dec 2025 18:25:00 +0530

For the first time, astronomers have produced the first two-dimensional maps of the Solar atmosphere. The boundary is marked by a point where the solar winds can escape the tangled magnetic fields prevent the hot gas or plasma from moving outwards. The map was produced using a combination of astronomical instruments and heliophysics observatories, indicating that the outer atmosphere grows larger, rougher and spikier during the more active phases of the Sun. The research helps better understand the impact of the Sun on the Earth, and that of other stars on the planets they host. Data from the Parker Solar Probe, that is repeatedly diving into the outer atmosphere of the Sun was used to produce the map. The boundary of the Solar atmosphere is considered to be where the speed of the solar wind is faster than the speed of the magnetic waves, which is known as the Alfven surface. Most of the plasma loops back and falls into the Sun, along tangled magnetic field lines originating from a deeper convective layer. This surface is the edge of the Sun, and has not been mapped before.

Reconciling Observations and Theory

Previous observations were based on distant instruments, which were reconciled with theories to understand and predict solar activity. Now, the Parker Solar Probe is providing direct measurements from within the Solar Corona, allowing scientists to track changes in solar behaviour at a more granular level. Scientists knew that the boundary of the Sun changes dynamically with Soalr Cycles, but were not sure exactly what these changes looked like. The new maps and data can help scientists better understand the ongoing processes deeper into the interior of the Sun. A paper describing the research has been published in The Astrophysical Journal Letters.

New study challenges mass estimates of galaxy haloes

Aditya Madanapalle — Sun, 28 Dec 2025 18:12:00 +0530

Researchers from the Raman Research Institute have uncovered a deep flaw in the method used to measure the haloes of galaxies. Galaxies are surrounded by wispy envelopes of gas and dark matter, extending between 10 and 20 times the visible size of the galaxy itself. These halos contain most of the mass in the galaxies, allowing them to maintain their shapes, and preventing the constituent stars from flying off in all directions. The gaseous components of the galaxy haloes is called the circumgalactic medium. The oxygen from the entire line of sight is picked up. (Image Credit: RRI/PIB). The conventional method for estimating the mass of the circumgalactic medium (CGM) is an indirect method, using ionised oxygen as a proxy. When a distant galaxy travels behind a foreground galaxy, the light from the distant background source is absorbed by the elements in the foreground galaxy. The amount of ionised oxygen is then used as a proxy to determine the total mass of the galaxy haloes. The researchers have revealed that this method is problematic, as the light is absorbed by the oxygen in the entire intergalactic distance along the line of sight.

The measurements are off, but by how much?

A paper describing the research has been published in The Astrophysical Journal. One of the authors of the study, Kartick Sarkar explains, "We are challenging the notion that the entire ionized oxygen belongs to CGM. We’re suggesting that a relatively small fraction of the ionized oxygen is coming from CGM and that there’s a blanket of IGM around CGM which is contributing to the observed oxygen. For high mass galaxies like our Milky Way, the CGM may contribute just 50 per cent of the ionised oxygen, with the rest coming from the IGM. For lower mass galaxies, it can go down to 30 per cent". The scientists are now working towards quantifying the discrepancy.

Top 10 science breakthroughs of 2025 that changed medicine, space and human history

Pragya Singha Roy — Fri, 26 Dec 2025 15:43:00 +0530

New Delhi: In 2025, the scientific experiences were exciting and unsettling at the same time. Medical advances were time savers. Space exploration transformed the way human beings perceive their position in the universe. Meanwhile, the reduction of financial funds, climate catastrophes, and moral controversies put new pressure on researchers around the globe.Whether it was hospitals or observatories, whether it was ancient fossils or artificial intelligence, they all grabbed the attention of the masses and showed what will dominate the field of science over the next few years. The ten great science stories of 2025, as they might be recalled in history, by Smithsonian magazine.

Pig organs kept humans alive

This year doctors have made significant advances in xenotransplantation. Transplanted pig organs had been gene-edited and were inserted into human organs in life-threatening cases, and this gave hope to thousands of people on the waiting list to acquire organs.A patient in the US survived 271 days with a pig kidney, the longest in the world. Limited trial approval by the FDA ensued. In China a partial pig liver transplant was also successfully reported by scientists. Although rejection is still a problem, these experiments have become a milestone in the medical field of transplant.

Rare interstellar comet raced through the solar system

Only the third non-solar system known object was confirmed by astronomers. The comet was identified as 3I/ATLAS and was travelling too fast to be held by the gravitational force of the sun.The unusual chemistry was found in the glowing coma of space telescopes. Nickel was present as iron-free, and carbon dioxide was prevalent compared to water vapour. Having made a short stopover on Mars and Earth, the comet is heading towards Jupiter and will leave permanently in 2026.

“Dire Wolf” pups sparked a global ethics debate

One biotech firm declared that it had brought back the dire wolf through genetic engineering. The animals had been produced through the editing of the grey wolf DNA by way of the discovery of ancient fossil genes.The pups were soon explained by scientists as not the real dire wolves. They were modernised wolves. The project rekindled the debate on de-extinction, conservation priorities and the extent to which synthetic biology can go.

The “Duelling Dinosaur” was finally named

A famous fossil that used to be believed to be a teenage Tyrannosaurus rex was classified as a second species. Scientists referred to it as Nanotyrannus lancensis. The dinosaur was completely developed, as indicated in bone growth rings. It had an anatomy different from T. rex, as it had more teeth and longer arms. The discovery can make scientists revise the appearance of the young T. rex dinosaurs.

Canada lost its measles-free status

Following over one year of consecutive spread, Canada lost its measles elimination status. The nationwide reported cases were more than 5,300. The experts in health gave warnings that the U.S. would be the next target. In 2025, almost 2,000 notifications were registered in 43 states. Vaccine hesitancy was a cause of concern, with warning signals of a resurgence of the preventable diseases.

Ancient skulls may have revealed the face of Denisovans

Scientists had associated near-complete skulls with Denisovans in the first instance. These enigmatic early humans were once only known about by the fragments of the DNA.A famous skull of a man known as the Dragon Man was linked to Denisovans through the protein and genetic analysis. A second Chinese reconstructed skull indicated that the group could be much older than it has been thought. It is possible that human evolution time records must now be rewritten.

Los Angeles wildfires left long-term scars

Southern California was ravaged by wildfires in early 2025. Over 16,000 buildings were burnt down; dozens of human lives were lost.Other than the flames, scientists drew toxic soil contamination, wildlife distortion and hundreds of indirect deaths associated with the smoke. The catastrophe turned out to be a vivid illustration of fire hazards due to climate in cities.

Possible signs of life on a distant planet

Scientists who focused on the atmosphere of exoplanet K2-18b through the James Webb Space Telescope had to report the existence of gases associated with life. Living organisms on earth produce the compounds. Scepticism did not lag far behind. The statistics and interpretation were doubtful to other scientists. The discussion put into the limelight the proximity of the quest of alien life, but its uncertainty.

People formed emotional bonds with AI chatbots

In 2025, artificial intelligence breached extraordinarily personal domains. Chatbots, companionship, therapy and emotional support. Among the benefits that were recorded by researchers was less loneliness. Yet physicians also had instances of A.I. psychosis where users mistook bots for the conscious. Legislators started to demand more stringent protection, particularly among minors.

Scientists recovered the oldest animal proteins

By removing the proteins of fossil teeth up to 24 million years old, researchers broke numerous records. The bones were of an extinct rhinoceros.The finding took molecular analysis much further out of bounds than ancient DNA. Scientists believe that proteins are going to open up evolutionary history tens of millions of years back.

Astronomers observe black hole jets rotating in lockstep with accretion disk

Aditya Madanapalle — Wed, 24 Dec 2025 15:27:00 +0530

Black holes are surrounded by a flat, swirling cloud of infalling gas and dust, known as accretion disks. The swirling matter and the spinning black hole create twisted magnetic fields, that results in the formation of polar jets, where superheated gas are funneled away from the black hole at speeds approaching that of light. It has long been predicted through theory and simulations that the disk and jet rotate in tandem. This co-precession of the disk and jets has never been directly observed however, as such observations have proven to be challenging. Now, astronomers have directly observed the co-precession of the disk and jets of a black hole, that is likely to arise from the Lense-Thirring effect, in which a rapidly rotating black hole drags the surrounding spacetime, resulting in a tilted accretion disk, with perpendicular jets. The observations were possible because of a distant star wandering too close to a supermassive black hole occupying the core of the LEDA 145386 galaxy, resulting in a tidal disruption event designated as TDE AT2020afhd. The star is violently shredded by the catastrophe, and the material gets absorbed into the accretion disk.

Observations match theoretical predictions

The TDE was initially spotted by an optical sky survey. 215 days after the initial discovery, the X-ray emissions started showing striking quasi-periodic oscillations, with the radio emissions being in synch with the X-ray emissions. The team was able to construct a co-precission model of the disk and jet that reproduced the variability of both the X-rays and the radio emissions. A paper describing the research has been published in Science Advances. Co-corresponding author of the paper Huang Yang says, "This is the first time that disk-jet co-precession has been clearly observed in a black hole system, which is truly exciting."

ISRO's LVM3-M6 rocket successfully deploys BlueBird Satellite

Aditya Madanapalle — Wed, 24 Dec 2025 10:06:00 +0530

At 08:55 hours IST on 24 December 2025, the Launch Vehicle Mark 3 (LVM3) M6 flight lifted off from the Second Launch Pad at India's spaceport on the barrier island of Sriharikota. The only passenger on board was the 6,100 kg BlueBird 6 satellite, the first in the second-generation 'Block 2' satellites. 15 minutes later, the satellite was precisely injected into its intended orbit. This was the heaviest satellite launched from Indian soil, the third commercial flight of the LVM3, the ninth successful successive flight of the LVM3, and the first commercial mission for a customer from the USA. This was also the 100th orbital launch by India. ISRO Chairman V Narayanan said, “I am extremely happy to announce that LVM3 ‘Baahubali’ rocket, M6 launch vehicle has successfully and precisely injected the BlueBird Block 2 communication satellite in the intended orbit. This is the first dedicated commercial launch for a customer from USA, that is AST SpaceMobile. Let me congratulate New Space India Limited (NSIL), the launch vehicle teams of the Department of Space (DoS), and the satellite project team of AST SpaceMobile on this outstanding achievement and contribution for the global community. This is our 104th launch from Sriharikota, also the ninth successful successive mission of the LVM3 launch vehicle, demonstrating its 100 per cent reliability.”

AST SpaceMobile has an intensive programme ahead

Mark McLaren, SVP of Program Management APAC gateways and launch operations at ASTSpaceMobile said "Thank you very much to ISRO and NSIL for their excellent performance, cooperation during this campaign. It has been a pleasure to be here and everyone has been very good and very helpful, and we are very glad to see our spacecraft finally in orbit, and thank you for an excellent ride." AST SpaceMobile aims to deploy between 45 and 60 BlueBird satellites by the end of 2026, and is aiming to launch five missions by the end of the first quarter of next year, with flights scheduled on the Blue Origin New Glenn as well as the SpaceX Falcon 9.

Scientists examine mysterious spider-like feature on Ice Moon Europa

Aditya Madanapalle — Tue, 23 Dec 2025 16:24:00 +0530

Scientists have investigated a spider-like feature within the Manannan Crater on Europa, one of the ice moons in orbit around the Gas Giant. The feature was first discovered by NASA's Galileo spacecraft that was retired in 2003. The feature allows scientists a window into the ongoing subsurface processes on the ice moon. Europa is suspected to host a global subsurface saltwater ocean, and is one of the most promising places to find life elsewhere in the Solar System. The scientists used the lake stars on Earth as analogues, combined with field observations, lab experiments and modelling to understand the formation of the feature. The research has implications for future missions that might land on Europa, or any of the ice worlds without thick atmospheres. Such branching, tree-like features are known to form in the regolith near the south pole of Mars as well. On Mars, escaping gas from a seasonal dry ice layers erode dust and sand, resulting in the asterisk-shaped features. Scientists believe that the feature on Europa formed from an impact, when brine from beneath the ice shell extruded through the ice broken by the impact. This is similar to the process by which lake stars on Earth form, from snow falling on frozen lakes.

Damhan Alla

Scientists have dubbed the feature Damhan Alla, which is Irish for 'spider' to distinguish it from the Martian spider formations. The researchers believe that the feature may have formed in a way similar to lake stars on Earth. An impact created the crater, and temporarily elevated the temperatures and pressures in the region, allowing a subsurface brine reservoir to erupt and spread through the porous surface ice. While Earth has a nitrogen rich atmosphere, the atmosphere of Europa is tenuous. The researchers recreated the environment of Europa in a lab. A paper describing the research has been published in The Planetary Science Journal.

Astronomers observe record-breaking gamma-ray burst

Aditya Madanapalle — Tue, 23 Dec 2025 16:03:00 +0530

Gamma-ray bursts are intense flashes of energetic light produced by catastrophic cosmic events that usually last between a few seconds to a few minutes. Typically, such bursts are formed by the collapse of a massive star into a black hole after it runs out of nuclear fuel, or a collision between a pair of neutron stars. An international team of astronomers have observed a gamma-ray burst designated as GRB 250702B that has broken all records by lasting nearly seven hours. The sustained gamma-ray burst does not fit into any known models for cosmic explosions, but scientists have a few ideas on what could have caused it. The gamma-ray burst originated from a distant, dusty galaxy that obscures visible light, with only infrared and high-energy emissions passing through. The data suggests that a narrow jet of material traveling at nearly the speed of light was aimed straight at the Earth, penetrating the thick layers of obscuring dust in the host galaxy. Scientists believe that the gamma-ray burst could have been caused by the death of a massive star, the collision of a star made almost entirely of helium as against hydrogen, or a star being ripped apart after venturing too close to a black hole, resulting in a tidal disruption event.

Did a black hole eat a star?

The leading explanation is that a black hole consumed a star, but there are uncertainties in how exactly this happened. A black hole containing a few thousand times the mass of the Sun may have shredded a star that passed close to it, or a much smaller black hole may have merged and consumed a stellar companion in a binary system. Gamma-ray bursts were first discovered in 1973, with about 15,000 GRBs being observed since, but GRB 250702B is in a league of its own because the burst lasted for over twice the duration of the previous longest-known bursts. A paper describing the research has been published in The Astrophysical Journal Letters.